![]() ![]() ![]() The transport of bile salts from the liver to the duodenum and the return of bile salt from the distal ileum to the liver via the enteral-hepatic circulation in humans. ![]() Note that the distribution of PHT1/2 in tissues is species-specific in that human skeletal muscle expresses PHT1 but no PHT2, whereas mouse skeletal muscle expresses both PHT1 and PHT2 β-Ala β-alanine, CAT cationic amino acid transporter, CN1 carnosinase-1 (serum carnosinase), CN2 carnosinase-2 (tissue carnosinase), CreaT1 creatine transporter-1, CreaT2 creatine transporter-2, GAT γ-aminobutyrate transporter, HypD 4-hydroxyproline-containing dipeptides, HypT 4-hydroxyproline-containing tripeptides, OH-Pro 4-hydroxyproline, PAT1 proton-(H +-coupled) and pH-dependent but Na +- and Cl −-independent transporter for taurine (low-affinity, high-capacity transporter), PepT1 peptide transporter-1, PepT2 peptide transporter 2, PHT1/2 peptide/histidine transporters 1 and 2, TauT taurine transporters. The absorbed nutrients are transported in blood in the free forms for uptake by extra-intestinal tissues via specific transporters. Taurine, creatine, carnosine, anserine, and 4-hydroxyproline, as well as the products of carnosine hydrolysis (β-alanine and histidine) exit the enterocyte across its basolateral membrane into the lamina propria of the intestinal mucosa via specific transporters (Wu 2013). Inside the cell, taurine, creatinine and anserine are not degraded, some of the 4-hydroxyproline-containing peptides are hydrolyzed to 4-hydroxyproline and its peptides, some 4-hydroxyproline is oxidized to glycine, and carnosine undergoes limited catabolism. Dietary taurine, creatine, carnosine, anserine, and 4-hydroxyproline are taken up by the enterocyte across its apical membrane via specific transports. Dietary collagen is hydrolyzed by proteases, peptidases and prolidase to free amino acids as well as 4-hydroxyproline and its peptides. Red meat (including beef) is a functional food for optimizing human growth, development and health.Īmino acids Creatine Function Health Metabolites Peptides.Ībsorption of taurine, creatine, carnosine, anserine, and 4-hydroxyproline by the human small intestine and the transport of the nutrients in blood. Furthermore, these nutrients may promote the immunological defense of humans against infections by bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses (including coronavirus) through enhancing the metabolism and functions of monocytes, macrophages, and other cells of the immune system. Dietary taurine, creatine, carnosine, anserine and 4-hydroxyproline are beneficial for preventing and treating obesity, cardiovascular dysfunction, and ageing-related disorders, as well as inhibiting tumorigenesis, improving skin and bone health, ameliorating neurological abnormalities, and promoting well being in infants, children and adults. The present review provides the public with the much-needed knowledge of nutritionally and physiologically significant amino acids, dipeptides and creatine in animal-source foods (including beef). Consumption of 30 g dry beef can fully meet daily physiological needs of the healthy 70-kg adult human for taurine and carnosine, and can also provide large amounts of creatine, anserine and 4-hydroxyproline to improve human nutrition and health, including metabolic, retinal, immunological, muscular, cartilage, neurological, and cardiovascular health. Of particular note, taurine, carnosine, anserine, and creatine are absent from plants, and hydroxyproline is negligible in many plant-source foods. These five nutrients are highly abundant in beef, and have important physiological roles in anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory reactions, as well as neurological, muscular, retinal, immunological and cardiovascular function. Taurine (a sulfur-containing β-amino acid), creatine (a metabolite of arginine, glycine and methionine), carnosine (a dipeptide β-alanyl-L-histidine), and 4-hydroxyproline (an imino acid also often referred to as an amino acid) were discovered in cattle, and the discovery of anserine (a methylated product of carnosine β-alanyl-1-methyl-L-histidine) also originated with cattle. ![]()
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